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The Blog @ TomRichey.net

The Three Estates Explained (French Revolution)

12/11/2022

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I've created a new handout that explains how each of the three estates of the Old Regime (clergy, nobility, and the "third") differed from one another during the Old Regime before the French Revolution. The handout also gives clarity regarding the different divisions of the Third Estate (bourgeoisie, sans-culottes, and peasantry) and how they differed from each other.
Click to Download Handout
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AP US History Free-Response Sample Responses (2022)

5/15/2022

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The 2022 AP US History Free-Response Questions have been released to the public! Click here to view the questions on the College Board's website.

2022 APUSH SAQ Sample Responses

Click here to view my sample responses to the 2022 APUSH SAQ items.

2022 APUSH DBQ Sample Response(s)

Click here to view my sample response(s) to the 2022 APUSH DBQ. This file will be updated to include several sample responses that would earn different point values.

2022 APUSH LEQ Sample Responses

This year's LEQ 2 asked students to assess the relative importance of causes for the settlement of the British colonies. Click here to see a set of sample responses I've put together for LEQ 2.

Take a look at my analysis of the 2022 APUSH Free-Response Questions on Marco Learning's YouTube channel:

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AP European History Exam Free Response (2022)

5/15/2022

 
The free-response section of the 2022 AP European History exam has been released. Click here to view the questions.

Every year, people ask me for my take on the questions, so I am making an effort to put my teachable sample responses for the 2022 exam in one place where they can be easily accessed. I call these teachable sample responses because they are created not only to guide graders on what it might take to get a certain score, but I also create these samples so that they can be shown to students as examples of good writing.

This post is under construction and I will be updating some of these files in the coming weeks.

2022 AP Euro SAQ

Click here to access my sample responses for the Short-Answer Question (SAQ) section of the 2022 AP European History exam.

2022 AP Euro DBQ

Click here to access my response to the 2022 AP European History DBQ on the English Civil War. I will be updating this file soon to include some samples other than the one I wrote in response so that teachers and students can see samples that would earn several scores.

Check out my live take on the 2022 exam on Marco Learning's YouTube Channel:

How Technology Has Improved Testing Around the World

4/6/2022

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​Blog Author: Billy Walton
Picture
As the years pass, more technologies have been adopted into classrooms, both virtual and in-person. In
fact, Campus Technology’s report on edtech adoption talks about some of the technologies that have seen an
increase in use within the past three years. These include video-recording and distribution tools, accessibility tools, as well as virtual labs and simulations. The edtech experts from New Globe suggest that these technologies can improve student learning capabilities because of the added engagement. Technology also generates data that helps teachers create better lessons for their students.
Incidentally, one of the major applications of tech in education is in testing. From e-proctoring to test simulations, below are some of the ways technology has improved testing.

​Assistance from e-proctoring software

The pandemic has caused many classrooms to shift online, therefore making tests difficult to supervise. In
fact, Texas A&M University has found 800 cases of academic fraud online. Luckily, there is curated software nowadays that monitor students’ tests like ProctorU, which has online remote proctoring services that offer features like auto proctoring and live proctoring. They use an AI-based system to oversee examinations. Another choice for monitoring tests is Examus, which is software that analyzes online user behaviour through a webcam for facial recognition and emotion detection.

​Ready to use test-making programs

​Manually making tests is time-consuming. A study by the University of Washington reveals that standardized
assessments take up teachers’ time and focus away from quality lesson planning. However, with test-making
programs, they can still formulate and administer exams without it consuming most of their time.
Some examples of test-making programs include Edulastic and Crowdsignal. Edulastic allows teachers to make standard-aligned assessments and get feedback as soon as possible. Likewise, Crowdisgnal has features that permit the creation of online polls, quizzes, and questions. Students can use devices like smartphones, tablets, or computers to answer, and the results can be collected to provide statistics for educators.

​Immediately accessible test data

Checking each students’ paper is a laborious process. Fortunately, there are programs that collect and provide data on students’ test answers like Formative and GoSoapBox. Formative permits educators to assign activities, receive students’ results in real-time and provide immediate individual feedback. Test data will inform teachers where students experience difficulty, thus allowing them to adjust and steer discussions as needed.
On the other hand, GoSoapBox has a unique feature called a confusion meter. This enables students to indicate when and where they’re confused with the material to let the teacher know when to slow down. It also has options to create polls and Q&A features for better communication.

​Easily available online resources

Finally, materials that can help teachers in making tests become more accessible online have been even more
important. As previously stated, creating tests demands a lot of time from teachers. To combat this, testing guides are provided here at TomRichey.net for you to use at your convenience. There are even ready-made exams that can test students’ knowledge and how they retain information. We've also included Document-Based Question rubrics, multiple-choice questions, and Long Essay Question rubrics that can serve as a test-making guide.
With the support from technology, students’ learning capabilities can improve, and teachers’ instructing abilities can be heightened. The way tests are created, conducted, and supervised has also been enhanced for the benefit of both students and educators. Through the appropriate application of technology in the classroom, education will continue to progress.
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"Sistine" Works of Renaissance Art

8/1/2021

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The Sistine Chapel, named for Pope Sixtus IV, contains some of the most famous works of Renaissance painting -- most notably the ceiling, which was painted by Michelangelo. Inspired by this iconic collection, I have made note of sixteen works of Renaissance painting, sculpture, and architecture that every serious student of Renaissance art should know.

Click here to download a printable handout in PDF format.

​EARLY RENAISSANCE ART (Quattrocento)

​1400-1490

​The fifteenth century was a formative period of Renaissance art known as Quattrocento (Latin for 400 - the century with a four in it), during which Renaissance art developed into a style that was clearly distinguishable from medieval art, incorporating linear perspective, realistic portrayals of human subjects, and a greater incorporation of classical themes (while still producing plenty of beautiful religious art).

Masaccio, The Tribute Money

1425

Tommaso di Ser Giovanni di Simone - known as Masaccio (“Sloppy Tom”) for taking no care for his appearance because he was too passionate about painting to care about anything else - had a powerful influence on the development of Renaissance painting during his short life (he died at 26).
Masaccio The Tribute Money
The Tribute Money depicts a scene from the Gospels, in which Jesus asks Peter to go to a fish and open its mouth to remove a coin that will allow them to pay the Temple Tax. Masaccio was the first Renaissance painter to employ linear perspective and used chiaroscuro shading to direct the viewer’s attention to Jesus. Both of these techniques pioneered by Masaccio would become prominent in Renaissance painting.

​Brunelleschi, Florence Cathedral Dome

Completed in 1436

​​​Construction on the Florence Cathedral began in 1296 in the Gothic style of the Middle Ages but as construction continued, Florentines became increasingly fascinated with classical architecture. The Florentines wanted their cathedral to have a dome, but no one had any idea how to construct one, as the secrets of the architectural arts  of the Romans had been lost.
Photo of Florence Cathedral Dome by Petar Milošević
Photo by Petar Milošević
​That is, until Filippo Brunelleschi, a gifted sculptor and architect,  began  to study the Roman Pantheon and other architectural marvels, making detailed sketches and taking precise measurements. Brunelleschi gained confidence in his ability to construct a dome based on classical designs and won the commission after a hard- fought battle. Fighting every step of the way with people who envied his talents, Brunelleschi’s dream finally became a reality when the Florence Cathedral was consecrated, with a finished dome, in 1436 – 140 years after construction began.

Donatello, David (Bronze)

c. 1440s

Donatello, David (Bronze) clicked by Patrick A. Rodgers
Photo by Patrick A. Rodgers
​Christians tend to keep their clothes on. As a result, the classical art of sculpting nude human figures - which had been so common in ancient Greece and Rome - had all but ceased to exist in the Middle Ages. Donatello, the most gifted sculptor of his age (and possibly of all time, depending on who you ask) was an avid student of classical art and sought to recreate the style with his statues of David, a biblical king of Israel. In sculpting David, Donatello combined the classical and Christian traditions by sculpting a biblical hero in the classical style.
​
​Early in his career, Donatello sculpted a fully clothed marble David, which was admired but didn’t gain nearly as much attention as the bronze David, which was sculpted sometime later. The bronze David was the first freestanding nude sculpture of a male figure since classical antiquity. This statue is believed to be a product of Medici patronage, demonstrating the creative license that secular patronage offered to Renaissance artists. 
​The bronze David is portrayed as youthful and is crowned with a laurel wreath (a classical symbol for victory). He wears a slight smile as if he is still trying to process what had happened. His foot is perched casually on Goliath’s severed head and he holds the sword of his vanquished foe.

Botticelli, Adoration of the Magi

1475-1476

​The Adoration of the Magi, produced by Sandro Botticelli early in his career, distinguished his mastery of the art of painting. Vasari, author of Lives of the Artists, notes that the faces of the onlookers are not only painted from different angles and looking in different directions, but also have varied facial expressions.
​Although the subject of the painting is religious, this painting also glorifies Florence’s wealthiest citizens who patronized Botticelli and other artists. Several members of the Medici family are present, with Cosimo having the honor of glorifying the Christ Child. Botticelli stands at the bottom right, placed among the first citizens of Florence.
Botticelli, Adoration of the Magi

Botticelli, The Birth of Venus

1484-1486

​Sandro Botticelli’s Birth of Venus, commissioned by the  Medici family, depicts Venus, the Roman goddess of love and  beauty, rising out of the sea, bringing a scene from classical mythology to life. The prominent presence of a nude female in a painting was scandalous by medieval standards but had been common during the classical period that Renaissance humanists were seeking to recreate in their time. 
Botticelli, The Birth of Venus.
Primavera, a similar work by Botticelli with sensual portrayals of female figures from classical mythology, is also well-known but not quite as iconic as The Birth of Venus.

Perugino, Delivery of the Keys

1481-1482

Perugino’s Delivery of the Keys is arguably the most recognizable painting in the Sistine Chapel that was painted by someone other than Michelangelo. It depicts a biblical scene in which Jesus gives the keys to the Kingdom of Heaven - shown as literal keys here – to Peter and tells him that He will build His Church on the rock of Peter and his profession of faith.
​
This scene is particularly important because it explains the Catholic doctrine of papal supremacy, as the pope claims to be the successor to Peter, the first Bishop of Rome. Those who enter the pope’s personal chapel are reminded of the basis for the pope’s claim to authority over all Christians.
Perugino, Delivery of the Keys
​The background of the painting is filled by works of classical architecture built in the Greco-Roman style. The triumphal arches on either side balance the painting. And Perugino uses light to direct the viewer toward Jesus and Peter. Mixed in with the apostles are figures wearing contemporary Renaissance clothing. 
​
​Early in his career, Perugino was regarded as the best painter of his time. His style built a bridge between the Quattrocento style of the fifteenth century and the High Renaissance style that developed at the turn of the sixteenth century. 
​Later in his career, he was eclipsed by the work of the High Renaissance masters, such as Leonardo, Michelangelo and Raphael. But as Raphael’s teacher, he would leave a lasting legacy as the man who taught the greatest painter of the Renaissance how to paint.

HIGH RENAISSANCE ART

1490-1527

The High Renaissance was the peak of artistic achievement in Renaissance art and literature, during which the greatest Renaissance masters – Leonardo, Michelangelo, and Raphael – perfected the idealized realistic portrayal of humanity in art.

Leonardo da Vinci, Vitruvian Man

c. 1490

One of the distinguishing characteristics of High Renaissance art is an obsession with human anatomy. Leonardo da Vinci was particularly obsessive, producing countless sketches of the human frame, muscles, and internal organs. The most famous of these sketches is the Vitruvian Man, which he drew according to the ideal proportions established by the ancient Roman architect, Vitruvius, who wrote that the human body was the inspiration for the orders of architecture. The human body, like a building, has ideal proportions that the greatest artists will understand in order to create works that are lifelike in a perfect sort of way.
​Leonardo’s studies of classical anatomy, combined with his own observations of the human body, brought Renaissance art to a level that had been unmatched even by classical artists.
Leonardo da Vinci, Vitruvian Man

Michelangelo, Pietà

1498-1499

A pietà (an Italian word meaning “pity”) describes any artistic representation of the Virgin Mary cradling the dead body of Jesus Christ. Although many artists have depicted this scene, Michelangelo’s Pietà is the most iconic. 
Michelangelo took so much pride in his accomplishment that when he realized that some viewers thought another sculptor had made it, he carved MICHAELA[N]GELUS BONAROTUS FLORENTIN[US] FACIEBA[T] (Michelangelo Buonarroti, Florentine, made this) across the Virgin’s chest. While this resonated with the increasingly secular and individualistic spirit of the Italian Renaissance, Michelangelo, a devout Catholic, reportedly felt guilty about his burst of pride and swore never to sign any of his works again.
Photo of Michelangelo, Peita by Stanislav Traykov
Photo Credit: Stanislav Traykov

Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper

1490s

​The Last Supper depicts the moment when Jesus announced to His apostles that one of them would betray him. The apostles are shown in groups of three, expressing varying degrees of anger, shock, and grief. In the group next to Jesus’ right shoulder, John leans toward Peter while Judas shrinks back, holding a sack of money. The Da Vinci Code, a popular book adapted to film, promotes the theory that da Vinci intended for John to represent Mary Magdalene, but art historians do not buy this, noting Leonardo’s tendency to feminize men.
Leonardo da Vinci, The Last Supper
​While Leonardo’s The Last Supper is one of the most recognized paintings in the world, it is one of the most poorly preserved paintings in history. Rather than paint a fresco on wet pla­ster, Leonardo painted The Last Supper on a dry wall in order to enhance the coloring and give him more time to modify the painting as he worked. The painting began deteriorating almost immediately and numerous attempts have been made to preserve and restore it. Copies of the painting give us the best picture of how the original might have looked. 

Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa

1503-1506

​The Mona Lisa is the most widely recognized Renaissance painting that exists and deserves inclusion here for that reason, alone. Although there has been speculation about the subject of the painting – including a theory that it is a feminized self-portrait of Leonardo – documentary evidence makes a strong case for this being a portrait of Lisa del Giocondo, the wife of a wealthy Florentine silk merchant.
​The subject’s direct eye contact with the viewer and Leonardo’s use of sfumato to blur the transitions from light to dark make it seem as if the viewer is looking at a real person rather than just a painting. 
Leonardo da Vinci, Mona Lisa
​The Mona Lisa is housed in the Louvre. It has been vandalized several times, including by one man who claimed to be in love with the painting and cut it with a razor blade, hoping to steal it. Shortly before World War I, an Italian patriot who was employed at the Louvre stole it, believing that the classic Italian painting belonged in Italy. The painting was later recovered and returned to the Louvre after being briefly displayed in Florence.

Michelangelo, David

1501-1504

The large block of marble that would become Michelangelo’s David sat idly for decades before the leaders of Florence could find someone who could be trusted to sculpt something worthy of its value. Michelangelo received the commission and spent two months of his life sculpting the most recognizable statue of the Renaissance.
The representation of a biblical figure in the heroic nude style of classical Greece and Rome represents the merging of the Christian and classical traditions that was at the core of Renaissance humanism. Goliath is absent from this sculpture, as David is portrayed as calm and ready to strike before his battle with the giant (rather than after his victory, as was depicted by Donatello). David assumes a contrapposto stance, with all of his weight resting on his straightened right leg.
​In addition to being a prominent figure in the Bible, David was often used as a political symbol by the Republic of Florence, a city-state that continually found itself standing against powerful enemies. David stands defiantly with his eyes turned toward Rome as a challenge. The statue was attacked on a few occasions by Florentine citizens who saw it as an expression of the power of the Medici family.
Michelangelo, David

Raphael, The School of Athens

1509-1511

Raphael’s The School of Athens is the embodiment of the classical spirit and artistic perfection of the Renaissance. Not only does the painting achieve balance, perspective, and realism, but it features the great philosophers of classical antiquity together all in one room.
​​At the center, Plato (modeled after Leonardo da Vinci) debates philosophy with his pupil, Aristotle, with Plato pointing to the sky to illustrate his idealism while Aristotle’s hand hovers above the ground, inviting his teacher to consider physical realities as a starting point for human understanding.
Raphael, The School of Athens
​Socrates stands a short distance away from Plato and Aristotle, engaging a group of people around him. Diogenes, the cynic philosopher, sits alone on the steps while Raphael stands in the bottom right corner next to the Persian prophet, Zoroaster, who is holding a model of the stars in his hand.

Michelangelo, The Creation of Adam

c. 1512​

​The Creation of Adam forms the centerpiece of Michelangelo’s collection of paintings on the Sistine Chapel ceiling. It is part of a series of paintings on the ceiling that represent the Creation and Fall of Man, as well as God’s promise of redemption and salvation for humanity.
Michelangelo, The Creation of Adam
​The anatomically correct portrayal of Adam represents the meticulous studies of human anatomy undertaken by High Renaissance painters. Some observers have even noted the dark red background behind God resembles the human brain. Adam’s limbs are portrayed in the same likeness as God’s to show that he was created in His divine image. God’s outstretched finger nearly touches Adam’s, but Adam’s finger does not quite touch God’s, even though it would be possible if he were to will himself to stretch his finger. This illustrates both the humanistic belief in the human potential and Christian teachings about human sinfulness separating God and Man.

NORTHERN RENAISSANCE ART

1500-1600

During the fifteenth century, the Renaissance was an Italian phenomenon, but as the printing press allowed humanist writings and Renaissance culture to spread north of the Alps, where artists made their own adaptations of the Renaissance style.

Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Harvesters

1565

​While Raphael’s The School of Athens epitomized Italian Renaissance painting with its all-star cast of classical philosophers, the Northern Renaissance emphasis on the ordinary can be seen in Pieter Bruegel’s The Harvesters. There is no one of any note in this painting – just agricultural laborers going through their daily tasks of harvesting, eating, resting, and socializing. The Harvesters set the stage for modern landscape painting, which would become a prominent feature in Dutch Golden Age painting and Romantic painting.
Pieter Bruegel the Elder, The Harvesters

Albrecht Dürer, Self-Portrait

1500

​For German Renaissance painter Albrecht Dürer, the year 1500 marked not only the beginning of a new century, but a milestone in his own life. At that time, the age of 28 represented the transition from young manhood to maturity. 
Albrecht Dürer, Self-Portrait
​Dürer painted himself here in the image of Christ, with his face highly symmetrical and his eyes projecting a calm serenity, but a serenity that betrays deep emotional pain beneath. His hand is on his chest in a gesture of blessing.
​While Italian Renaissance artists tended to strive for an idealized realism, Dürer’s self-portrait includes blemishes and imperfections. Although his face is symmetrical, his hairline is not. Also, note the prominence of dark colors in comparison to the bright and vivid colors that were used by Italian Renaissance artists during the High Renaissance. The portrait is also free of any background imagery that Renaissance artists typically used to add depth and perspective. 

Hans Holbein the Younger, Portrait of Erasmus

c. 1523

​Erasmus of Rotterdam, one of the best-known humanist scholars of the Northern Renaissance, understood not only the power of the printed word, but also the power of projecting one’s image through portraiture. Hans Holbein the Younger (and his students) painted several copies of Erasmus’ portrait and sent them abroad to powerful people who supported his work. Erasmus wrote on so many controversial subjects that he counted on popularity with his supporters in order to avoid persecution from his detractors.
​Erasmus is pictured here wearing a fur coat to bear the colder climate of Northern Europe. He has his hands on a book with a combined Greek and Latin inscription that reads, “The Herculean Labors of Erasmus of Rotterdam.” A classical column adorns the background, underscoring Erasmus’ attachment to studying the classical literature of ancient Greece and Rome. Behind Erasmus’ shoulder are more books, enhancing his reputation as a humanist scholar.
Hans Holbein the Younger, Portrait of Erasmus
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2021 AP US History DBQ (Sample Essay)

6/25/2021

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In a pandemic year in which most APUSH classes were running behind content-wise, nobody expected the DBQ to be from the post-WWII era! But then, that's exactly what the AP US History Test Development Committee did this year! The 2021 APUSH DBQ topic addressed the social consequences of the prosperity that followed World War II, with a timeframe between 1940 and 1970.

Click here to view the 2021 AP US History DBQ

A few days after the 2021 DBQ was released, I solved the DBQ within the recommended 60-minute time limit. My sample essay is available for students and teachers to read, and for those of you who want to watch me go through it, the broadcast is available on my YouTube channel.

Click here to view my sample essay for the 2021 APUSH DBQ.

You may find my APUSH DBQ rubric helpful while taking a look at this sample essay, as each of these points is specifically targeted in the sample essay.
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2021 AP European History DBQ (Sample Essay)

6/25/2021

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The topic of this year's AP Euro DBQ threw us all for a loop, as the setting wasn't even in Europe! The 2021 DBQ required students to evaluate whether or not liberalism was the guiding principle of British imperialism in India.

Click here to view the 2021 AP Euro DBQ prompt and documents.

Although the topic was unexpected, the 2021 DBQ was actually quite accessible to AP Euro students - at least, for students who understand European concepts of liberalism (which are quite different than the current American understanding as someone who is generally left of center and tends to support the Democratic Party).

Click here to download the AP Euro DBQ Rubric.

Given that most of the points on the AP Euro DBQ Rubric are dependent on analytically using the documents as evidence, a student can get full credit knowing absolutely nothing about British India, in particular. In my sample response, I used Darwinism and Social Darwinism to illustrate the illiberal relationship between the British and their colonized subjects.

Click here to download a sample
​full-credit essay.

my apwh dbq: tell us about colonialism in india baby

me: ok fine, whatever i hate you but it’s fine that’s fair

my ap euro dbq: hey bb tell us about colonialism in india pic.twitter.com/4w3zu2Rlbg

— jess (@Jessica53773427) May 7, 2021
A few days after the 2021 free-response questions were released, I solved the 2021 DBQ within the one-hour time limit. I found that while the topic was not equally easy to argue from both sides, it was very easy to craft an argument against liberalism in British India while also making a counter-argument that liberalism was present in British India to an extent. Although this did not occur to me during the first pass, there is a way to create an argument for liberalism being the driving influence of British governance in India if one would take the critical newspaper articles and point out how they show a lack of censorship.
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Causes of the French Revolution

4/24/2021

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The French Revolution is one of the most important events in modern European history, setting the stage for the spread of popular government not only in Europe, but also onto every inhabited continent. While the French Revolution could be explained in an infinite number of ways, I am highlighting five causes in this post.
Click here to download this guide in a printable PDF format.

1. The French Financial Crisis

  • France’s loss in the Seven Years’ War and its subsequent support (military and financial) for the American Revolution added debt that strained the French government’s finances.
  • The royal family lived in inordinate luxury at Versailles and there was a perception of extravagance while others in France suffered (Marie Antionette was known as “Madame Deficit.”)
  • The Church and the nobility were exempt from most forms of taxation (e.g., the taille), making it difficult for the French government to raise revenue.
  • The French government’s financial crisis provided the emergency situation that made it necessary for Louis XVI to call the Estates General.

2. Poverty Among the Lower Classes

(Urban Working Class and Peasantry)
  • Bad harvests in 1788 and 1789 caused grain shortages, leading to higher grain prices and an overall higher cost of living.
  • At the same time, the working class faced lower wages, making it even more difficult to cope with the higher cost of living.

3. The Rise of the Bourgeoisie

  • The French professional class (educated people who don’t work with their hands) gained wealth and influence in the 18th century, but this increased wealth and influence was not accompanied by any institutional political power.
  • This increasingly influential class wanted to be represented in an official representative body with legislative authority, resembling the British Parliament.
  • When the Estates General was called, it was divided into the Three Estates, with 95% of the population getting one of three votes. Louis DID NOT allow the delegates to the Estates General to vote by head (as a nation), insisting on keeping the traditional form of the Estates General, which gave the privileged estates the opportunity to run the table.

4. The Influence of Enlightenment Philosophy

  • Government is created by a social contract in order to better protect each individual’s natural rights of life, liberty, and property. Divine Right monarchy is illegitimate. (Locke)
  • Religious toleration and a contempt for the power of the Catholic Church. (Voltaire)
  • Government power should not be consolidated in one place. Its powers should be separated in order to prevent tyranny. (Montesquieu)
  • Government policy should reflect the General Will of the people. (Rousseau) 
    NOTE: Rousseau’s ideas were most influential during the Radical Phase of the Revolution.
Voltaire, the Enlightenment Philosopher
Voltaire's Enlightenment philosophy influenced the French Revolution.

5. The Ineptitude of Louis XIV

  • After the failure of the Estates General, Louis allowed the National Assembly to meet in 1789 but threatened delegates by bringing troops to Versailles. The Women’s March on Versailles led to the royal family being relocated to Paris.
  • In the early stages of the French Revolution, Louis had a veto over legislation, which he used to veto measures that were popular with the people.
  • In 1792, he attempted to escape from Paris and join with Royalist military forces near the border. He was caught and brought back to Paris under guard.
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Did Napoleon Betray the French Revolution?

4/15/2021

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The rise of Napoleon Bonaparte created a controversial chapter in the history of the French Revolution that has puzzled both contemporary observers and historians looking back on the phenomenon. At first glance, seeing Napoleon enthroned and holding near-absolute authority over France seems like a tragic turning back of the clock as if the French Revolution had never happened, at all. Of course, this is assuming that the French Revolution was all about – or even primarily about – civil liberties and representative government.

In reality, the French Revolution was such a complex phenomenon that it defies a single label, inviting anyone who wants to take a crack at it a chance to answer the age-old question for themselves: Did Napoleon betray the French Revolution or did he complete it? Your answer will depend on which revolutionary values you choose to hold most dear.
Click here to download a printable PDF version of this document.
Napoleon on His Imperial Throne by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres
Napoleon on His Imperial Throne by Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres

REPRESENTATIVE GOVERNMENT

Napoleon ruled in the autocratic style of an absolute monarch. Although legislative bodies existed in France during Napoleon’s reign, they had little real power, having been stripped of it by the Constitution of Year XII (1804). If the principle of representative government was the cornerstone of the French Revolution, Napoleon definitely did not advance its values.

POPULAR GOVERNMENT

While Napoleon’s autocratic rule violated the principle of representative government, there is no doubt that Napoleon enjoyed the support of the majority of the French people and considered himself an agent acting on their behalf. The Constitution of Year XII, which elevated Napoleon from First Consul to Emperor, was ratified by the French people in a plebiscite, or national referendum, with over 99 percent of voters voting in favor of Napoleon becoming emperor and claiming the powers that came with it. Additionally, he claimed the title of “Emperor of the French,” rather than “Emperor of France,” in recognition that his power came from the French people rather than by divine right. Although the people were not directly involved in governing through elected representatives, Napoleon gave a nod to the principle of popular sovereignty under the social contract and used his power to deliver popular reforms, such as the Concordat of 1801, re-establishing the Catholic Church as the “majority religion” of the French people.

EQUALITY UNDER THE LAW

The Napoleonic Code established a uniform system of laws that applied equally to everyone in the French nation. There were no aristocratic privileges (e.g., tax exemptions for an entire class of people) of the sort that had existed under the Old Regime. This new system of laws recognized the people of France as a nation rather than a collection of three estates.

Some exceptions to equality under the law existed under the Napoleonic Code, such as it being more difficult for women to sue for divorce than men (she only had grounds if her husband brought his mistress into the family home, thereby embarrassing her) and the re-establishment of slavery in the French colonies. However, it should be noted that under the Old Regime, legal divorce did not exist in France, at all, and Britain did not have a similar law until 1857.

EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY

Under Napoleon’s leadership, France made great strides toward equality of opportunity. He expanded access to education, creating lycées that provided a free secondary education to students who could pass the entrance exams. This expanded access to education created unprecedented opportunities for young people from common backgrounds to enter the civil service, the officer corps of the military, or the Catholic hierarchy. Under Napoleon, promotions in the military and civil service were based on merit, rather than social status or noble birth.

[CLASSICAL] LIBERALISM

If the French Revolution was chiefly about promoting liberal values of free speech, press, and religion, Napoleon would get mixed reviews. His government employed censors , who screened literature and newspapers for offensive content and criticism of the government. However, while the Concordat of 1801 re-established the Catholic Church as the “majority religion” of France, it stopped short of declaring it as the state religion. Napoleon allowed full religious toleration during his reign and even granted Protestant ministers similar subsidies as he gave to Catholic priests. Napoleon’s rule has often been compared to that of the Enlightened Absolutists, as several of his reforms can be seen as implementing liberalism from above.

NATIONALISM

The Old Regime was made up of the three estates. The laws and the administration of justice varied from region to region. The people of France were bound together only as subjects loyal to the King of France. The Revolution sought to create a French nation that consistently French across regions and did not differentiate legally between members of social classes.

Napoleon advanced the idea of French nationalism by creating a single law code for all of France that established equality under the law, his continued use of the revolutionary Tricolor flag, the restoration of the Catholic Church as the official “majority religion,” and proclaiming himself as the Emperor of the French (People).

​In the schools established by Napoleon, French was the only language of instruction. This spread the French language to parts of France where it had not been spoken or understood under the Old Regime. French was also established as the only language of the legal system.

Napoleon also presided over the peak of France’s national greatness and military power. The French people loved him for this, eagerly rallying around the emperor of their own choosing after his escape from his first exile in Elba. During the Hundred Days, Napoleon re-established himself as the Emperor of the French until he was deposed again after being defeated at Waterloo by the foreign military forces of the Seventh Coalition.

SOCIAL MOBILITY

Perhaps, the greatest defense that Napoleon could make that he did not undermine the values of the French Revolution was that he personified these values with his own extraordinary life. Napoleon was born to a minor noble family in Corsica (an island off the coast of France that is technically French, but not “seen” as French).

Under the Old Regime, Napoleon would have risen only to the middling officer ranks but would never have been placed in command of an army. Napoleon’s journey from being born to minor provincial nobility to becoming the Emperor of France is, in and of itself, one of the great stories of the French Revolution and its upending of the Old Regime and its system of aristocratic privilege.
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When is the 2021 AP European History exam?

3/20/2021

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When is the 2021 AP European History exam? This year, it's a complicated question, as the exam will be administered three times in early May, late May, and early June.
Don't like reading? Find out about the exam dates on YouTube!

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The first exam administration, which will occur on May 7 at 12 PM local time, will be in the traditional paper/pencil format. The second and third exam administrations, which will occur on May 19 and June 2, at 12 PM EDT, will be administered in a digital format. The digital exams will be administered both in proctored settings at schools and also at home in circumstances permitted by the College Board.
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I will be hosting free live reviews each week for AP Euro students. Click here to sign up!

Friday, May 7 @ 12 PM (Local)
(Paper/Pencil Exam)

The first administration of the AP Euro exam will be in the traditional paper/pencil format and will include all of the standard elements of a traditional exam (multiple choice, short answer, DBQ, and LEQ). It will be offered at schools in a traditional setting with standard proctoring and test security protocols.
The 2021 AP Euro paper/pencil exam will be administered on May 7.
Click here to learn more about Marco Learning's Student Support prep courses for the 2021 AP Euro exam!

Wednesday, May 19 @ 12 PM EDT
(First Online Exam Date)

The second and third administrations of the AP Euro exam will be administered in a digital format, which will be offered both in proctored settings at schools and at home (the setting will be determined by your school's AP coordinator). Due to test security concerns, the digital exam WILL NOT include a Long Essay Question (LEQ), which will be replaced by two additional Short-Answer Questions (SAQs). The multiple choice and Document-Based Question (DBQ) will appear in the same format as the standard exam, but the SAQ section will be slightly different. 
The 2021 AP Euro exam will be administered online on Wednesday, May 19, at 12 PM EDT.

Wednesday, June 2 @ 12 PM EDT
(Second Online Exam Date)

The 2021 AP Euro exam will be administered online on Wednesday, June 2, at 12 PM EDT.
More information on AP exam dates is available on the College Board's website. All information here is current as of the date of posting and is subject to change.
AP® is a trademark registered by the College Board, which is not affiliated with, and does not endorse, this website.
Exam information graphics courtesy of Marco Learning (used with permission)
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